S6E6: Lime, Iron, and Salt

 

This large furnace, used by the Fipa people in mainland Tanzania, resembles what those of Kilwa looked like during their own time

Our newest episode examines the economic rise of Kilwa, based primarily on its status as an industrial center for the production of iron, salt, and lime, along with its emergence as a major trade hub. The emergence of Sofala as a major center of gold exports in modern day central Mozambique also 

Map showcasing Kilwa's fortunate geographic location between the trade center of Mogadishu and the growing port for gold exports, Sofala.

At the same time that Kilwa was emerging as a major economic center, it was also making its first steps as a major political power. The first documented expansion of Kilwa took place at this time, in the form of the conquest of Mafia Island, an island about 200 km north of Kilwa. The distance of this conquest showcases that Kilwa had an expanding reach, as well as sufficient naval power to mount such an expedition.

Illustrations of mtepe ships at Kilwa and the nearby settlement of Songo Mnara

S6E5: Make Way for Prince Ali, the Mysterious Kilwa Chronicles

Decades da Asia - a historical compilation that includes the Portuguese translation of the Kilwa Chronicle

(Yes, I have now made two references to Disney Renaissance movies in season six. I can't promise these will be the last.)

Today's episode concerns the controversial semi-mythical history of Kilwa's foundation, relayed to us through a pair of texts which allegedly translate a much older indigenous document containing the story.

The location of the city of Shiraz in southern Iran

The Kilwa chronicle(s) tell the story of Ali Ibn Hasan, a prince from the City of Shiraz, then a vassal of the Buyid Dynasty of southern Iran and Mesopotamia. According to the chronicle, Ali was shunned by his brothers due to his heritage, with his mother being an enslaved East African woman. As a result, he decided to leave the city to avoid his brothers machinations, taking himself, his family, and an entourage to East Africa to start a new life. Eventually, he ended up on Kilwa, purchased the island from the locals, and created the kingdom that would late become known in history as the Kilwa Sultanate.

The extent to which this story is based on historical reality is highly contentious. Genetic evidence indicates that local Swahili people often have a noticeable degree of Persian ancestry, while archaeological evidence shows the presence of trade between Persia and Kilwa from an early stage.

However, historians are cautious about accepting the tale. Claims of distant Arab, Hebrew, and other Middle Eastern origins are a common trope in much of Africa, and much of the Islamic world outside of the Middle East more generally. For the most part, these stories are regarded as merely attempts to associate a family or people with the prestige that Middle Eastern ancestry holds within the Islamic faith.

These competing factors lead us to an interesting conclusion about the veracity of such a claim in the episode.

S6E4: Second Fiddle in East Africa

Shangaani District of Mogadishu, an area still featuring many of the city's medieval structures

While Kilwa would one day become the most significant part of the East African coastline, its early history consisted of the island's small settlements staying humble in scale and largely overshadowed by its distant northern neighbor - Mogadishu. 

Throughout the Medieval period, Mogadishu emerged as the most significant city on the East African coastline, despite its lack of a natural harbor. The city offered such an immense diversity of precious goods, and was in such a convenient location shortly away from a well-trafficked international trade route, that a small settlement like Kilwa struggled to peel off merchants from this well-established route.

Map of Kilwa Kisiwani and its Surroundings (from The Chronology of Kilwa Kisiwani, AD 800–1500

It would not be until well into the 11th century that Kilwa's geography, sitting in the middle of multiple river estuaries and a natural harbor, would begin to pay dividends. While the island would one day host a tremendously impressive urban complex, for the moment, it was still a humble settlement of small square houses, and a population consisting mostly of fishermen. 

S6E3: Lost Cities of Azania

 Today's episode focuses on the lost cities of Azania, a name of unclear etymology used for the region of East Africa stretching for the Swahili Coast to the southern regions of Somalia. The region is referred to in ancient Roman geographic manuscripts, such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

According to the Periplus and other contemporary texts, the grandest city in Azania was known to the Greek speaking authors as Rhapta, or City of Weaving, named after its practice of creating ships made of planks of wood woven together with rope.

The Periplus describes Rhapta as a major exporter of ivory, turtle shells, and other goods, while other Roman sources describe it as a "metropolis", or "mother city", implying that colonists from Rhapta founded cities of their own. 

Despite the city's notable influence, its exact location remains unknown to this day. The city's location in the Periplus is described only as "two days sail south of the island of Menuthias", an island varyingly associated with Madagascar, Zanzibar, and Mafia Island. Recently, however, certain Tanzanian historians have claimed that an underwater site in the Rufiji delta represent the remains of the city, a claim which we will investigate further in our upcoming premium episode.

S6E2: The World's Oldest Trade Route?

Wavy Line Pottery Sherds (D. Wright)

The early history of Tanzania and Kenya is defined by its environment. During the "aqualithic period", the region's hunting and gathering population relied heavily on the exploitation of marine life from the freshwater swamps that covered much of East Africa during a period of especially high humidity and rainfall. 

Coastal Tanzania and Kenya began to shift to an agrarian lifestyle around 3,000 BC, which can be observed in the form of abandoned irrigation canals and grinding bowls from the period.

Kuumbi Cave, an important neolithic site in Tanzania

Kuumbi Cave is one example of a neolithic settlement site on Zanzibar island. These neolithic settlements often consisted of a series of small dwellings surrounding a natural shelter like a cave, used as a community shelter, with these caves also often being used by their paleolithic ancestors. Kuumbi Cave might also contain evidence for the world's oldest transoceanic trade route, as a series of poultry remains, resembling those of domestic chickens, were discovered in the cave during recent archaeological excavations and dated to roughly 4,000 BC.

Red junglefowl, often identified as the earliest wild ancestors of domestic chickens, may have made their way to Kuumbi cave through international trade with South Asia

If Kuumbi Cave features chicken bones from chickens, it would be evidence of a transoceanic trade route, since, by 4,000 BC, chickens were still only known in their home regions of South and Southeast Asia. As a result, the Kuumbi bones might be evidence of an early trade route between East Africa and South Asia.

Helmeted guineafowl, a more likely candidate for the source of the Kuumbi bones

On the other hand, it seems more likely that these bones originated from helmeted guineafowl, a local species that closely resembles chickens anatomically, and are still widely consumed around the world today.

While 4,000 BC might be an excessively old date for the origin of international trade in East Africa, it would soon become better established, as ancient sources record the region as a crucial trade route by the turn of the first millennium. Our next episode will analyze the appearance of East Africa in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. 

Season 6 Episode 1: The Swahili Coast

The Swahili Language (properly KiSwahili) has become synonymous with Africa writ large, a symbol of anti-imperialism, and far and away the most popular African language for non-Africans to learn.

It might surprise you to learn that such an iconic language can trace its origins back to an ethnic group that composes only a tiny fraction of modern KiSwahili people. The WaSwahili (Swahili people) are a testament to the idea that number and influence are not always synonymous. This season will focus on the most influential state to arise from the Swahili civilization of East Africa: the Sultanate of Kilwa.

Vague map of the area traditionally considered the "Swahili Coast". Not everyone within this area were ethnically WaSwahili, but this is the area where we can confidently say Swahili culture would eventually become dominant.

Saadani National Park: A decent representation of the natural geography of much of the Swahili Coast

Most of the Swahili Coast is considered "tropical savanna", but doesn't resemble the stereotypical idea of an African savanna, as in the tall, semi-arid grasslands. Rather, if you'd like to imagine the natural state of most of the "Swahili Coast", imagine something like Saadani national park, a low-lying forest peripheral to white, sandy beaches.

The area is also subject to the system of Indian ocean currents and monsoons, which will eventually come to have an enormous impact on the region's history

Indian Ocean currents and monsoons

Season 5 Episode 3: Trans-Saharan Trade in the Garamantian Age

A piece of Roman jewelry embedded with carbuncle, one of the key goods traded in Germa.

Horses, carbuncles, gold, salt, and more. What do all these things have in common? They were first traded across the Sahara by the Garamantes. Today's episode discusses the earliest rise of Garamantian trans-Saharan trade, the first documented example of trade across the vast desert.

Season 5 Episode 2: Fossil Water Farming

 

An image of a farm irritated by a qanat/fouggara

Brought to the Sahara following the Persian conquest of Egypt, the spread of a new irrigation technology allowed Garamantian civilization to expand dramatically

An archaeological map of Zinkekra

The earliest evidence of a unique Garamantian culture comes from the settlement of Zinkekra, located at the top of a rocky plateau near the Wadi al Ajal. However, settlements gradually drifted further down the valley.

The location at the bottom of these valleys allowed new Garamantian settlements to better take advantage of a technology recently brought to North Africa with the Persian conquest of Egypt. Known as Qanats, or Fouggaras in North Africa, this advanced irrigation technology allowed Garamantian settlements to tap into groundwater reserves without the labor intensive practice of extracting water from wells with buckets. Instead, gravity brought water through the slightly inclined channel and delivered it to the irrigated outlet.

A fouggara seen from the surface, visible in the form of the round access tunnels created for construction and maintainence

Fouggaras were very labor intensive to produce, indicating that Garamantian cities were combined in some form of larger state, which allowed them to leverage a more robust labor pool. Additionally, the newly abundant sources of groundwater allowed the population of Garamantian settlements to expand dramatically.

Season 5 Episode 1: Paintings in the Libyan Desert

Roundhead Rock Art from the Akakus Mountains - Libya

Our newest episode of the podcast focuses on the geography and prehistory of Saharan Libya, including the transformation of the Sahara from a vast grassland into an endless desert, and the effect that this had on the culture's that persisted within this harsh world.

Map of Libya, highlighting the Idehan Ubari and Wadi al Ajal

Special Episode: What Does Bantu Truly Mean - Part 2

 

In this episode, we will examine some of the shortcomings of Harry Johnston's original Bantu expansion hypothesis, as well as which of its strengths have allowed it to persist in modern academic study of African history.

Special episode: What does Bantu Truly Mean?

 

Map approximating the extent of Bantu languages. Source: Khan Academy

Bantu is a term which has become one of the most contentious in the study of African history. The name of a language family stretching across much of the southern half of the African continent, the term has been used in many distinct ways. In anthropology, it has often extended beyond mere linguistics into an idea of a larger shared culture and history across southern and central Africa. In apartheid South Africa, "Bantu" was used as a euphemism for "black" in many of the country's most oppressive apartheid laws. Furthermore, debates around the origins of the original Bantu speaking peoples and their purported spread throughout the southern half of the continent are a historiographical point of contention. In this episode, we examine the origins of the idea of Bantu languages, as well as different theories on Bantu origins and how they were so successful in spreading across such a vast geographic area.

Due to the rarity of written sources in the Bantu speaking regions of Africa prior to colonialism, and the fact that almost all of the written sources focus on more "important" things like theology or records, we have little idea of what Bantu speakers thought about the similarities between their languages and those of their neighbors. However, it seems likely that Bantu speakers were aware of the similarity between different Bantu languages, they likely postulated about why and how these similarities had come to be, and theorized as to why certain people they encountered like the Nilotic or Khoisan speaking groups in Africa, or European and Arab foreigners spoke languages which were noticably more distinct.

Sadly, though, due to a lack of pre-colonial sources on the continent on the topic, the history of studying the linguistics of South and Central Africa is a somewhat Eurocentric one. The idea of a unified Bantu linguistics family is first proposed in writing by James Prichard, a British ethnologist. Decades later, Wilhelm Bleik, a German anthropologist would give the family a name, borrowing the term "Aba-ntu" from the Zulu language of South Africa.

Beyond the recognition of the language family, however, a British colonial administration named Harry Johnston would cement the earliest iteration of the modern theory of Bantu Expansion, claiming that all Bantu speaking groups shared a common linguistic ancestor group which migrated and expanded outwards from an original homeland in Cameroon or Nigeria. 

Harry Johnston

Johnston would also provide a key new idea to the studies of Bantu linguistics. Notably, he would argue against the then-widespread idea that Bantu grammatical structures and vocabulary were too complex for "primitive Africans", and that therefore Bantu languages must have originated from an outside "civilizing" race of Babylonians, Egyptians, Sumerians, Greeks, or Hebrews. Rather, Johnston argued that Bantu languages were a firmly African phenomenon, originating in western or central Africa before expanding elsewhere.

Johnston's ideas were as controversial as they were influential. While modern linguistics and archaeological studies have confirmed some of his ideas, they have challenged others. We will examine some of these challenges in our next episode on Bantu linguistics.

S4E29: the Fall of the Twelve Hills

 

Malagasy Defenders Building a Barricade at Antananarivo (1897)

In a betrayal of previous commitments to Madagascar, Britain revoked its recognition of Malagasy sovereignty in a deal with France, in exchange for French recognition of a British protectorate over Zanzibar. Soon after this deal, the French invaded Madagascar, landing troops in Mahajanga and Toamasina.

The famous "Berlin Conference" cartoon we're all familiar with

The Malagasy army, utterly spent from their previous war with France and severely short on ammunition, was forced into conservative tactics, with the Merina soldiers setting up defensive fortifications and retreating at the first sign that the fortification might fall. This tactic succeeded in slowing down the French, and allowing disease to take a toll, but little else. The Malagasy lacked ammunition for any counterattacks, and, by September of 1895, the French had reached the capital of Antananarivo.

Malagasy Christians exhuming graves to use coffin boards to build barricades

French soldiers enter Antananarivo

While Rainilaiarivony initially planned to turn the French siege of his capital into a bloody last stand, he changed his mind after seeing the destructive potential of French artillery against the city, and surrendered. The French entered the city, deposed Rainilaiarivony, and ended centuries of Merina rule over highland Madagascar. 

But by destroying the kingdom, the French would inherit their problems. Alongside rebellions already extant within Madagascar, many Merina and Sakalava immediately launched a rebellion against the French rule, known as the Menalamba revolt. The French would begin to believe that all elements of Merina elite society were secretly involved in supporting the coup, including Ranavalona III herself. The Merina queen was deported to Algeria, where she lived out her final days, never to return to her homeland. Meanwhile, several high ranking officials were accused of supporting the rebellion and executed. The French response to the rebellion was brutal and can arguably be described as genocidal, with tens of thousands of Malagasy being murdered by French soldiers in retaliation for the rebellion.

Ranavalona and her family in exile in Algeria

A pair of high ranking Merina officials are executed by the French by firing squad over alleged support for the Menalamba Revolt

Despite the brutal French response, the call for Malagasy independence never died down, and throughout the 20th century, the Malagasy people continued to demand independence. Today, Madagascar has regained its independence, and its future remains in the hands of the tompon-tany. 

S4E28: The Malagasy Gold Rush

 

Map of gold deposits in 19th century Madagascar by Gwyn Campbell

The French invasion and blockade of Madagascar in 1884, while it hadn't conquered the island nation, wrecked havoc on the Malagasy economy. With his country's economy in shambles, and with foreign investors being unwilling to take the risk of investing in Madagascar, Rainilaiarivony had to implement a desperate policy to excite investors and potentially reverse Madagascar's economic freefall: the opening of the country's long secret gold deposits for business.

S4E27: Independence (Partially) Defended

Ranavalona III was crowned empress of Madagascar in the midst of the first Franco-Hova War

The First-Franco war is a largely forgotten conflict. It represented neither a triumphant victory in the face of colonial conquest, nor a brutal and consequential defeat. This inconclusive nature, along with the heavyhanded censorship of the press by the French military, as well as being overshadowed by the larger scale and more devastating French war against Qing China meant that few people outside of Madagascar itself took much interest in the conflict. Despite this, the war is still worth studying due to its role in facilitating future French colonialism in the island, as well as an example of the strengths and shortfalls of Rainilaiarivony's government.

S4E26: The Malagasy Take Manhattan

 

Ravoninahitriniarivo: The Leader of the Malagasy Diplomatic Expedition

This episode focuses on the rising diplomatic tensions between Madagascar and France in the 1880s, arising over French claims over northern Madagascar, disputes over the inheritance of Jean Laborde, and french desires to colonize the island of Madagascar. 

French Cruiser Forfait, one of the ships which blockaded Toamasina in 1882 

S4E25: Ranavalona II - Madagascar's Christian Queen

 

The Palace of Rainilaiarivony

Following their survival of the failed coup of 1868, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony and Queen Ranavalona II set about implementing a new reformist agenda. Among these reforms included the creation of the country's first fully independent school, which educated Malagasy army officers on governmental administration. The school enabled the creation of a new bureaucratic class of officers, who replaced the old system of provincial government.

The Royal Chapel at the Rova of Antananarivo

Meanwhile, queen Ranavalona II radically transformed the country's religious system by converting to Christianity and burning the country's sacred sampy. To reduce Christianity's potential to act as a disruptive force, Ranavalona sought to create an independent Christian church under the control of the Malagasy government rather than the influence of foreign clergy.

To relieve his country from the currency crisis of 1879, Rainilaiarivony attempted to import large quantities of Indian rupees

Among these changes, Madagascar experienced a decade of non-stop economic growth and relative social stability. However, a disruptive smallpox epidemic on the east coast of Madagascar caused ripple effects in the Malagasy economy, ultimately leading to a severe currency shortage and economic recession.

S4E24: The Brother's Coup and First Malagasy Constitution

Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony

In the aftermath of the controversial coup against Radama II, the new head of state, prime minister Rainivoninahitriniony, was in a tumultuous position. He and the fellow orchestrators of the coup had committed the unprecedented act of overthrowing the mpanjaka Imerina. He attempted to legitimize the bureaucratic takeover by marrying one of Radama's wives, Rasoherina, as well as drafting a new constitution for Imerina. While the constitution would last, Rainivoninahitriniony did not, and he was himself overthrown by his brother in 1864. This brother was Rainilaiarivony, one of the top ranking generals in the Malagasy army, who proceeded to implement a de facto military dictatorship, overthrowing his brother and declaring himself prime minister. While Rasoherina remained the official head of state, Rainilaiarivony was the true power behind the throne.

Empress Rasoherina

Rainilaiarivony inherited a Malagasy economy in turmoil. The removal of the pro-European Radama II from power had dramatically hurt Madagascar's relationship with its most important trade partners. The new prime minister attempted to undo this damage through the negotiations of treaties with these powers. Throughout the 1860s, 70s, and 80s, Rainilaiarivony negotiated treaties of friendship and commerce with France and the UK, and additionally negotiated treaties with other countries in an attempt to diversify Malagasy trade. These included treaties with the USA, Italy, and Germany. 

1881 Treaty of Friendship between the United States and Madagascar

Ultimately, Rainilaiarivony's efforts has a mixed result. Trade revived at first, but the opening of the Suez canal allowed European ships to cut through the Mediterranean and bypass Madagascar when trading in Asia.

Rainilaiarivony and Rasoherina also had to fight off a final attempt by Rainivoninahitriniony to retake power as Rasoherina reached the end of her life. In the end, this coup was crushed, and Rainilaiarivony appointed a new puppet monarch in the form of Ranavalona II.

S4E23: Radama II

Radama II's coronation by a Catholic Priest

Radama II had a short reign over Madagascar, and his legacy is heavily debated. Charitable accounts of his reign paint him as a forward-thinking and humanitarian reformer, the "Renaissance Prince of Madagascar." However, more critical accounts highlight his capitulation to foreign interests and unwillingness to adhere to Merina norms of power sharing, leading to a dysfunctional government.

Radama II and his wife, Radobo

As a man essentially raised by a European father figure, Radama II was destined to hold some degree of sympathy towards the cause of foreigners in his kingdom. He was also culturally influenced by foreign elements, having converted to Christianity and enjoying western dress. Upon his mother's passing and his inheritance of the throne, he implemented numerous policies in alignment with European interests, including the legalization of Christianity, the reopening of trade with European countries, and the plan to implement the Lambert Charter. Furthermore, he ended Ranavalona's plans for self-sufficiency and industrialization, sought to relax fanampoana labor, and aimed to reduce the country's reliance on slavery.

In addition to these policies, Radama II sought to establish himself in the image of an "Enlightened Monarch", like his historical object of admiration, Napoleon Bonaparte. As part of this model, he began to ignore Merina constitutional norms, such as the consultation of nobility and bureaucrats prior to the implementation of policy. Instead, Radama favored ignoring his ministers and noble subjects in favor of associating with his close friends the Menamaso.

Ultimately, this unwillingness to include his ministers in decision-making as well as cuts to military pay resulted in a bureaucratic coup after only a couple years of rule. Radama was executed (or perhaps exiled in secret) and his wife was put in his place as a puppet ruler to the prime minister. From now until the end of the Merina kingdom, the monarchy remained a strictly regulated and constitutional position, a puppet to the state bureaucracy.

S4E22: The Lambert Coup

Joseph Lambert, labelled here with his nickname "Duke of Imerina", which he earned due to his control over 

Following the French invasion of Madagascar, the relationship between Ranavalona and the nations of Europe were at an all-time low. However, at the urging of her son, Prince Rakoto, and new moderate prime minister Rainivoninahitriniony, Ranavalona decided to reopen her country to European immigrants. One of the earliest immigrants to take advantage of this system was Joseph Lambert, a man who made a small fortune utilizing legal loopholes to trade slaves despite the near-global outlawing of the practice.

Prince Rakoto, the future king Radama II

Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony

While Lambert initially acted as a loyal agent of the Merina crown, he quickly revealed that he had more ambitious plans. He concocted a conspiracy with multiple high-level Merina officials, including the prime minister and prince, as well as Europeans living on the island, like the industrialist Jean Laborde. They planned together to overthrow Ranavalona in a military coup and place Rakoto on the throne. Meanwhile, he had Rainivoninahitriniony and Rakoto sign a charter for a new "Madagascar Company", a private firm under Laborde's ownership. This company would possess a monopoly on Malagasy imports and exports, as well as a right to exploit all uncultivated Malagasy land, and unlimited mining and logging rights on the island.

However, it turned out that Laborde had underestimated Ranavalona. She had known about the plan since its conception, and allowed it to continue in an effort to reveal disloyalty in the government ranks. When the day came for the coup to begin, all members were arrested. The prime minister and prince were spared punishment, indicating that they were the likely sources of Ranavalona's knowledge of the plan. All other Malagasy supporters were executed, while all foreign supporters of the coup were deported.

The Laborde Coup represented the final severing of relations between Ranavalona's government and the nations of Europe. The fact that a European businessman had attempted to overthrow her almost immediately following the relaxation of immigration restrictions confirmed her suspicions of foreigners. The brief thaw of the 1850s was reversed, and the rest of her reign saw a return to diplomatic isolation.

S4E21: How Mad was the "Mad Queen" of Madagascar

 

Sea mangos (Tangena) the poisonous fruit used in the notorious trial by ordeal

Ranavalona holds a unique place in Malagasy history as one of the island's longest reigning monarchs and arguably the most impactful ruler in its history. Ranavalona's rule saw radical shifts in every major contentious political matter in 19th century Madagascar. The queen is also one of the most notorious leaders not only from Madagascar, but one of the most infamous political leaders of any polity on earth. However, recent historical scholarship has shifted towards a more nuanced perspective of the "Mad Queen of Madagascar." 

Much of Ranavalona's negative reputation can be traced back to her falling out with the London Missionary Society. While Ranavalona maintained positive relations with the organization during the early segment of her reign, her perception shifted. She became increasingly concerned that the rising popularity of heavily syncretized Christianity in her kingdom would lead to a decline in veneration of the Merina ancestors, and subsequently a loss of faith in the ideological system which supported her royal legitimacy. Ranavalona banned Christian baptisms and ordered existing concerts to return to their original faith. While most Malagasy christians obeyed the coercive order, the few who refused to de-convert were treated to harsh punishments, often escalating to the death penalty.

An illustration of the persecution of Christians in Madagascar

Ranavalona's reign also saw the widespread reimplementation of Tangena, a trial by ordeal in which the accused was made to consume a toxic fruit, and the toxin's effect on their body was used to gauge their guilt. The Tangena Ordeal had an estimated fatality rate of between 30 to 70 percent, with the danger varyingly immensely by the ripeness and dilution of the fruit.

An artist's render of a Tangena trial: 1873

Ranavalona's reign had an interesting character that defined easy classification. While the brutality of Ranavalona's reign was undoubtedly exaggerated, it was brutal nonetheless. It was also a period of rapid, if unsustainable, economic and technological progress.

To her credit, Ranavalona is often praised for her defense of Madagascar's sovereignty against foreign incursions. In addition to defeating a French invasion in 1829, Ranavalona's army also defeated a joint Anglo-French intervention force in 1845. When British and French soldiers attempted an amphibious landing at Toamasina, they were rebuked and routed by the garrison of the city's fort.

The Fortress at Toamasina: 1845

However, Ranavalona would soon find out that the greatest threat to her sovereignty did not manifest in the form of foreign armies, but rather in a group of scheming advisors. We will focus on the Lambert plot and the final severing of the relationship between Ranavalona and the Europeans in our next episode.