S4E2: Settlers from All Shores

 

An example of the type of outrigger canoe used by Austronesian sailors, later introduced to East Africa

This episode focuses on tracking the settlement of Madagascar by multiple groups of people, including a (possible) short-lived hunter gatherer population from East Africa before 500 BC, followed by the more concretely evidenced arrival of Austronesian and Bantu people in the 6th Century AD.

The status of human settlement on Madagascar prior to the later settlement of the island by Austronesian and Bantu colonization is not especially clear. In fact, it's unclear if there was even a sustainable population of people on the island.

Some examples of the purported tools found at Lakaton'i Anja

Some archeologists claim that evidence exists to establish the presence of some kind of hunter-gatherer population in pre-settlement Madagascar. While the evidence is fairly convincing, it's not clear as to whether these remains evidence a permanent population or a transient one. The lack of archaeological evidence for long-term shelter construction seemingly indicates that these people may have been transient nomads from the mainland who counted Madagascar among the territories they roamed. Regardless, if such a population did exist by the period of settlement, it was likely small enough that it had a marginal impact on Malagasy history. While some increasingly marginalized theorists believe that there is a link between these hunter gatherers and the semi-mythical Vazimba of early Madagascar, such a link is doubtful for reasons we'll get into in the next episode. 

An engraved image of a Javanese ship found at the temple of Borobodur

There is compelling genetic and linguistic evidence that the bulk of Austronesian settlers in Madagascar were from the Dayak peoples, particularly the Maanyan people of Western Borneo. Different narratives surrounding these Dayak arrivals argue that they were either enslaved workers for a larger Javanese state that sought to use them as labor on the burgeoning settlements in Madagascar, or that they were refugees fleeing the expansion of Indianized kingdoms on their home island.

Example of Tana Pottery

The arrival of Bantu people to Madagascar is similarly contentious, with scholars debating whether they were brought to Madagascar through slave raiding or migrated to the island of their own volition. While enslaved workers, some of whom were Bantu, were certainly traded by Austronesian merchants, there is good reason to be skeptical of the idea that the entirety of the Bantu arrival in Madagascar can be chocked up to enslavement. For example, the high prevalence of Bantu loanwords to describe domesticated animals implies that Bantu herdsmen were the dominant pastoralist culture on the island at some point, something you would certainly not expect from enslaved workers.

By the 13th century AD, the stage of Malagasy civilization was set, since much of the island was settled. Sadly, this had a devastating effect on island wildlife. Elephant birds were driven to extinction by diseases brought by domesticated poultry, while giant lemurs succumbed to a combination of habitat loss and overhunting.

 Next episode, we will see how the narrative based on archaeology and genetic data conflicts with and supports numerous ideas surrounding the islands mysterious first inhabitants according to Malagasy legendary histories: the Vazimba. 

S4E1: Madagascar - the Eighth Continent

 

A (simplified) map of Madagascar's climate zones

Due to its natural and climactic diversity, Madagascar is sometimes nicknamed the "eighth continent." Despite being a relatively small landmass, Madagascar hosts an unusually varied array of climate zones. 

Malagasy spiny forest

These climate zones consist of a tropical coastal rainforest, a largely treeless tropical highlands, a semi-arid savanna, dry broadleaf forests, and a unique type of semi-arid forest landscape dominated by succulents and other tall shrubs called the spiny forest. The landscape also features unique formations associated with the island, such as Lavakas: a unique form of erosion that forms a canyon-esque gorge in a hillside.

The unique broadleaf forests of northwest Madagascar. Notice the relative lack of undergrowth. Credit: Damon Ramsey

A Malagasy Lavaka.credit to Rhett Butler

While Madagascar is still known for its unique flora and fauna today, the island once hosted even more unusual animal life. These included enormous flightless birds: the aepyornids. They are better known by their common name of Elephant Birds, due to their enormous eggs likely serving as the inspiration to Marco Polo's claim of enormous elephant consuming eagles residing on the island. Madagascar also once hosted species of giant lemurs, the largest of which could grow to the size of a silverback gorilla.

Size comparison between a human, elephant bird, and ostrich.

In our next episode, we will examine the many contradictory theories and narratives surrounding the arrival of Madagascar's first permanent human inhabitants.

S4E16: The Conquest of Toamasina

By 1817, Toamasina (Tamatave) was the busiest port on the east coast of Madagascar 

Radama's last promise to his father, that he would extend Imerina to the sea, was finally met in 1817, when Radama conquered the city of Toamasina. The city had long been under the protection of European powers, who leveraged their maritime power to protect the government of Jean Rene, a Malagasy merchant who governed the city. But in 1817, Radama made his own agreement with the British. In a treaty signed between the two states, Radama abolished Merina involvement in the slave trade in exchange for a large sum of cash, military equipment, and the opportunity to send Malagasy youth abroad. With a new ally on the island, the British abandoned Jean Rene and gave Radama the go ahead to conquer the coastal city.

Workers unload cargo from an outrigger canoe in Toamasina, circa 1880.

Toamasina gave Imerina its first major port in its history, as well as a direct line of communication with the outside world.

Radama (on the upper left horse) inspects an army 

Using resources acquired from his deal with the British, Radama assembled a modern army equipped with the latest firearms, artillery, and even horses, an otherwise unknown sight on Madagascar. The new Merina army proved unstoppable, with only the former hegemons of Madagascar, the Sakalava kingdoms, putting up successful long term resistance during Radama's reign.

Map of Radama's Conquests of Madagascar

The king's palace: Tranovola or the Silver House

In addition to using new military technologies acquired from foreign trade, Radama also sought to promote literacy in foreign writing systems, inviting British missionaries into Madagascar to teach the Latin script. He additionally mixed Malagasy and western architecture when commissioning a new palace. The Tranovola, Radama's new palace, features western elements like the double floor veranda, as well as Malagasy elements like house horns and an interior andry, or singular central pillar holding up a sloped roof.

Radama's rule was a critical period of Malagasy history. His conquests represented the first steps in producing a united kingdom of Madagascar, while his importation of new educational institutions rapidly grew literacy. However, his reign also brought new economic problems. Namely, the abolition of the slave trade had a far more profound impact on his kingdom's economy than he anticipated. To make up for lost revenue, Radama sought to transform Madagascar into Africa's first industrial power. That saga will be the focus of our next episode.

S4E21: How Mad was the "Mad Queen" of Madagascar

 

Sea mangos (Tangena) the poisonous fruit used in the notorious trial by ordeal

Ranavalona holds a unique place in Malagasy history as one of the island's longest reigning monarchs and arguably the most impactful ruler in its history. Ranavalona's rule saw radical shifts in every major contentious political matter in 19th century Madagascar. The queen is also one of the most notorious leaders not only from Madagascar, but one of the most infamous political leaders of any polity on earth. However, recent historical scholarship has shifted towards a more nuanced perspective of the "Mad Queen of Madagascar." 

Much of Ranavalona's negative reputation can be traced back to her falling out with the London Missionary Society. While Ranavalona maintained positive relations with the organization during the early segment of her reign, her perception shifted. She became increasingly concerned that the rising popularity of heavily syncretized Christianity in her kingdom would lead to a decline in veneration of the Merina ancestors, and subsequently a loss of faith in the ideological system which supported her royal legitimacy. Ranavalona banned Christian baptisms and ordered existing concerts to return to their original faith. While most Malagasy christians obeyed the coercive order, the few who refused to de-convert were treated to harsh punishments, often escalating to the death penalty.

An illustration of the persecution of Christians in Madagascar

Ranavalona's reign also saw the widespread reimplementation of Tangena, a trial by ordeal in which the accused was made to consume a toxic fruit, and the toxin's effect on their body was used to gauge their guilt. The Tangena Ordeal had an estimated fatality rate of between 30 to 70 percent, with the danger varyingly immensely by the ripeness and dilution of the fruit.

An artist's render of a Tangena trial: 1873

Ranavalona's reign had an interesting character that defined easy classification. While the brutality of Ranavalona's reign was undoubtedly exaggerated, it was brutal nonetheless. It was also a period of rapid, if unsustainable, economic and technological progress.

To her credit, Ranavalona is often praised for her defense of Madagascar's sovereignty against foreign incursions. In addition to defeating a French invasion in 1829, Ranavalona's army also defeated a joint Anglo-French intervention force in 1845. When British and French soldiers attempted an amphibious landing at Toamasina, they were rebuked and routed by the garrison of the city's fort.

The Fortress at Toamasina: 1845

However, Ranavalona would soon find out that the greatest threat to her sovereignty did not manifest in the form of foreign armies, but rather in a group of scheming advisors. We will focus on the Lambert plot and the final severing of the relationship between Ranavalona and the Europeans in our next episode.

S4E6: Sakalava, Madagascar's First Empire

 

Map of Sakalava (green) and Imerina (pink) in the early 17th Century

Today's episode focuses on the rise of Sakalava, the first true empire in Malagasy history. This will be far from its last appearance, as the Sakalava kingdom (and, in the future, multiple kingdoms) will serve as the arch-rival of Imerina throughout much of its early history.

A Sakalava woman possessed by an ancestor or spirit during a Tromba ceremony. Sourced from: The Possessed and the Dispossessed by Lesley A. Sharp

Sakalava culture is noted for it's unclear origins. Sakalava oral histories claim an origin from southwestern Madagascar of the Maroseraña royal family. Though some anthropologists from around the world speculated on potential origins from outside of Madagascar (such as Zimbabwe, India, or the Swahili Coast), more mainstream scholarly work generally confirms the oral history, though with the caveat that the Maroseraña likely intermarried and integrated multiple families from other parts of the island as well as from the southwest.

Sakalava people first emerged under the kingship of a monarch named Andriamisara, who Sakalava histories typically credit as the first true Sakalava king. He united the numerous semi-nomadic people of Western Madagascar under his yoke, marking the genesis of the Sakalava identity.

Along with lifestyle, Sakalava also practice unique traditions. Women who were subjects of the Sakalava king were required to shave their hair in times of mourning, and their diet contained more animal products and less rice than their highland neighbors. They also practiced unique religious ceremonies, such as Tromba. This ceremony involves the possession of a person by a spirit or ancestor. The experience was a positive one, with the ancestor or spirit using the possession to impart wisdom, power, or good fortune on the possessed. 

A trio of Sakalava soldiers. Photo captured in 1895.

The Sakalava succeeded in early expansion in part due to a technological advantage over their peers. Even as early as the 17th century, Sakalava soldiers made heavy use of gunpowder firearms. Perhaps more importantly, the system of Sakalava rule allowed for the kingdom to quickly expand. According to both Sakalava oral histories and the writings of European merchants, Sakalava rule was quite loose, allowing a fair amount of autonomy to local kings. People who acquiesced to Sakalava rule were rewarded, such as the Vazimba rulers who surrendered. In return, these Vazimba were given special privileges over the rivers and streams of Sakalava country, allowing for exclusive fishing and cultivation rights.

The Swahili stone mansions in western Madagascar were close simulacra of Swahili stone houses found on the mainland in settlements like Songo Mnara (pictured) or Kilwa Kisiwani

Trade also played a key role. Swahili merchants were a major presence in West Madagascar, often living in luxurious stone mansions that dwarfed the wooden homes of even Malagasy lords. They were able to afford such homes due to their lucrative position as middlemen to much of the Malagasy economy, shipping Malagasy rice, leather, slaves, and beef across the Indian Ocean. The Malagasy, in exchange, received metals, finished goods, glass, precious shells, pearls, incense, timber, and numerous other luxury goods. European traders also made their presence known during this time, also engaging in trade of firearms, rum, glass, and other goods in exchange for timber, rice, and enslaved workers.

Swahili settlement ruins near modern Mahajanga. See earlier photo for comparison.

S4E19: Western Technology, Malagasy Spirit

 

The remnants of one of the blast furnaces at Mantasoa

Malagasy political priorities were massively altered by the failed French invasion of Madagascar in 1829. While the attackers had ultimately been expunged, the refusal of the Malagasy's British allies to support them in the war effort resulted in a new premium being placed on developing a military capable of independently defending Imerina from foreign attacks.

James Cameron, LMS missionary and artisan, pictured here several decades after his arrival in Madagascar.

Ranavalona also sought to improve the fortunes of the failing foreign run firms throughout madagascar. Due to high transportation costs and constant material shortages, foreign run industrial firms based in Madagascar struggled to compete on the international market. By 1830, most of them were loss makers and only still in existence due to heavy government subsidies.

Ranavalona sought to transform these loss makers into a useful government expenditure by retooling them to focus on developing supplies for the army. James Cameron, a missionary, chemist, and  carpenter, was tasked with developing a recipe for gunpowder which only relied on locally available materials, and then building a gunpowder mill. John Canham, a missionary and leather tanner, made fewer products for the consumer market and started producing more military uniforms.

Jean Laborde, the French blacksmith turned industrialist, had a close relationship with the Malagasy royal family

The most influential foreign industrialist was Jean Laborde. Arriving in Madagascar from a shipwreck in 1831, Laborde got into contact with Ranavalona and became the head of a project to develop a cannon factory. Eventually, he would run the largest industrial project in Malagasy history: the creation of a multi-purpose industrial park at Mantasoa. In addition to cannon factories, Mantasoa featured silkworm farms, hydraulic powered blast furnaces, housing for workers, and a private residence for the queen.

The Mantasoa Industrial Complex

Ranavalona used her growing military industrial complex to double the size of her standing army, and resumed her late husband's campaigns of expansion. Under Ranavalona, Imerina reconquered countless rebellious territories, destroyed its longtime Sakalava rivals in Boeny, nearly did the same to the other Sakalava kingdom of Menabe, and extended its influence across southern Madagascar.

However, while Ranavalona's rule can selectively appear like a Malagasy golden age, a horrific system of oppression fueled her kingdom's economic and territorial growth, as well as its political stability. The atrocities committed by her government and that fueled the economic growth of Imerina will feature as the main topic of the next episode. 

S4E29: the Fall of the Twelve Hills

 

Malagasy Defenders Building a Barricade at Antananarivo (1897)

In a betrayal of previous commitments to Madagascar, Britain revoked its recognition of Malagasy sovereignty in a deal with France, in exchange for French recognition of a British protectorate over Zanzibar. Soon after this deal, the French invaded Madagascar, landing troops in Mahajanga and Toamasina.

The famous "Berlin Conference" cartoon we're all familiar with

The Malagasy army, utterly spent from their previous war with France and severely short on ammunition, was forced into conservative tactics, with the Merina soldiers setting up defensive fortifications and retreating at the first sign that the fortification might fall. This tactic succeeded in slowing down the French, and allowing disease to take a toll, but little else. The Malagasy lacked ammunition for any counterattacks, and, by September of 1895, the French had reached the capital of Antananarivo.

Malagasy Christians exhuming graves to use coffin boards to build barricades

French soldiers enter Antananarivo

While Rainilaiarivony initially planned to turn the French siege of his capital into a bloody last stand, he changed his mind after seeing the destructive potential of French artillery against the city, and surrendered. The French entered the city, deposed Rainilaiarivony, and ended centuries of Merina rule over highland Madagascar. 

But by destroying the kingdom, the French would inherit their problems. Alongside rebellions already extant within Madagascar, many Merina and Sakalava immediately launched a rebellion against the French rule, known as the Menalamba revolt. The French would begin to believe that all elements of Merina elite society were secretly involved in supporting the coup, including Ranavalona III herself. The Merina queen was deported to Algeria, where she lived out her final days, never to return to her homeland. Meanwhile, several high ranking officials were accused of supporting the rebellion and executed. The French response to the rebellion was brutal and can arguably be described as genocidal, with tens of thousands of Malagasy being murdered by French soldiers in retaliation for the rebellion.

Ranavalona and her family in exile in Algeria

A pair of high ranking Merina officials are executed by the French by firing squad over alleged support for the Menalamba Revolt

Despite the brutal French response, the call for Malagasy independence never died down, and throughout the 20th century, the Malagasy people continued to demand independence. Today, Madagascar has regained its independence, and its future remains in the hands of the tompon-tany. 

S4E15: Radama the Great

 

Radama, as depicted in an illustration by William Fitzwilliam Owen

If his father is the most remembered king in Madagascar, Radama is probably the best-known Malagasy king in the rest of the world. Radama is famous not only for leading the first major push to unify his home island but also for his later efforts to modernize and industrialize the Merina Empire. But how did this fascinating man come to power in the first place? Today, we track the rise of Radama from the heir to the kingdom to the man synonymous with the formation of Malagasy identity.

The beginning of Radama's reign was full of chaos. Even before taking the throne, he had already been the target of multiple assassination attempts by brothers, forced into an unhappy marriage, and served in the army on multiple campaigns. After taking the throne, he had to put down rebellions by his Betsileo and Sihanaka subjects.

Ifanadiana, Madagascar. The hill in the background is the site of the "martyrdom" of the Betsileo soldiers.

Beyond putting down revolts, Radama began his career with a series of successful campaigns against neighboring Betsileo kingdoms. The most famous of these campaigns was the Siege of Ifanadiana, where a group of Betsileo at the top of a hill chose to commit suicide rather than surrender to the Merina invaders.

A pirate graveyard on Nosy Boraha

Radama's greatest ambition for conquest would have to wait, though. He specifically desired to conquer the eastern coast of Madagascar. The eastern coast had recently undergone a cultural transformation with the arrival of swarms of European and American pirates to the region. One pirate from New York even established a colony on the island of Nosy Boraha. The arrival of pirates began a cultural and political transformation on the east coast, with some Malagasy using pirates as mercenaries, trading with the seafarers, and some even marrying and having children with pirates. Malagasy who adopted elements of European culture from European pirates and merchants were known as Malagasy Creoles, while those who came from a mixed background were called Zana Malata.

A photo of the old French fort at Fort Dauphin (taken hundreds of years after its abandonment.)

Our latest premium episode focuses on one of Madagascar's most interesting mixed-race historical figures: the pirate turned king of Madagascar, Abraham Samuel. Listen here.

S4E28: The Malagasy Gold Rush

 

Map of gold deposits in 19th century Madagascar by Gwyn Campbell

The French invasion and blockade of Madagascar in 1884, while it hadn't conquered the island nation, wrecked havoc on the Malagasy economy. With his country's economy in shambles, and with foreign investors being unwilling to take the risk of investing in Madagascar, Rainilaiarivony had to implement a desperate policy to excite investors and potentially reverse Madagascar's economic freefall: the opening of the country's long secret gold deposits for business.

S4E9: Betsimitatra and the Wonders of Agricultural Engineering

 

While population estimates vary wildly, anthropologists and historians agree that highland Madagascar underwent a staggering explosion of population in the 17th and 18th centuries. According to the oldest available censuses, the density of Imerina was 8-16 times higher than other regions of the island. The explanation for this enormous growth can be partially explained with the emergence of extremely efficient wet rice cultivation techniques.

Photograph of the Betsimitatra as viewed from the air. Notice the canals. Photo by Symonette Fanjanarivo

In its natural state, highland Madagascar is entirely unable to support wet rice cultivation. While this technique of rice growth is more efficient, it is limited in its viability due to its high water costs. In Imerina, rainfall is abundant for a brief moment in the wet season, while almost entirely absent for the rest of the year. This means that, naturally, wet rice cultivation was too water intensive to last throughout these long dry spells. 

An example of a dry (aka upland) rice field from Nepal 

Instead, early Merina farmers relied on dry rice cultivation techniques. This technique required less water, but relied on frequent fertilization with slash-and-burn agriculture, struggled to deal with weeds, and were vulnerable to locust swarms. 

Malagasy locusts, one of the island's deadliest pests. Photo by Peter Prokosch

The solution to these problems was wet rice cultivation, which choked out weeds and protected the rice from pests with an aquatic shield. Starting around the end of Andrianjaka's rule, Merina kings began to construct large scale infrastructure projects to make wet rice agriculture possible.

An example of terraced rice paddies and an irrigation canal in Imerina.

Throughout the reigns of Andriantsitakaransria and his successor Andriantsimitoviaminandriandehibe, conscript labor from local hova demes were used to construct large canals, reservoirs, and flood control systems throughout the highlands surrounding Antananarivo. These new measures allowed Merina farmers access to a source of plentiful freshwater which did not rely exclusively on rainfall. The greatest of these achievements were the fields of Betsimitatra. This region, which had once been composed of stagnant wetlands, was transformed with the construction of a series of canals which extended the Ikopa river to run through its valleys. With a new source of agriculturally viable water, the swamps were transformed into Madagascar's most productive rice farms. While the country would remain a secondary power on the island for the coming centuries, the creation of this efficient network of food production was its first step towards becoming Madagascar's pre-eminent state.

S4E3: The Vazimba, Hova, and Merina

The tomb of Rangita, located in Imerimanjaka

Indigeneity is a complex modern concept, one which is often difficult or even impossible to apply to societies from the pre-modern era. This is especially true on an island like Madagascar, with its melting-pot population. Merina legend records the existence of a people who lived on the Highlands of Madagascar before the arrival of migrants from the southeast coast. These first people of inland Madagascar are called the Vazimba. 

Analyzing the mythology surrounding Vazimba is a difficult task, since the description of who and what Vazimba are changes dramatically depending on the context. In the Tantara Ny Andriana, Vazimba are depicted as barely human-like creatures. They possessed glowing red eyes, enormous hanging ears, gigantic mouths full of sharp teeth, as well as dark skin and very short stature. The Vazimba also lived animalistically in this version of the myth. They have yet to discover riziculture and proper animal husbandry, preferring to drink milk directly from feral cattle rather than domesticating the animals, and used clay tools due to lack of metal-working technology. 

While some myths frame the Vazimba as subhuman creatures, others are more humanizing in their portrayal. These stories typically involve Vazimba women, particularly those who are the ancestors to later Merina families. These women are depicted as intelligent, beautiful, and privy to valuable secret knowledge. Curiously, Vazimba are also sometimes regarded as objects of veneration - ancestors who warrant praise and worship, especially when trying to initiate a business venture or conceive. What's going on with these very contradictory narratives?

Mahafaly statuette depicting a Vazimba, carvdd circa 1960

While many Vazimba legends depict them as semi-human monsters, historians believe that Vazimba represented a real population of humans that existed in the Malagasy highlands prior to the inland migration of coastal Hova classes in the 13th and 14th centuries. The origin of these first Malagasy, however, is highly disputed. Originally, European scholars that the Vazimba were part of the "African pygmy race" due to descriptions of their small stature. This assumption also aligned well with a dominant European ideology of racial darwinism, in which superior races conquered and subsumed inferior races like the pygmies.

Along with racial darwinism, the purported pygmy origins of the Vazimba has fallen out of favor in recent years. While there is evidence for some kind of pre-Austronesian population existing in Madagascar, the lack of place names deriving from pre-Bantu East African language families contradicts this hypothesis. Additionally, beyond their supposed shortness, there's really no similarity in the myth to any extant people groups.

Another Mahafaly statuette of a Vazimba, 1961

Among historical scholars, the predominant view of Vazimba mythology origins is that they represent an Austronesian population, albeit one from an earlier settlement wave. Berg wrote convincingly in his scholarly article about how the mythology of Vazimba originates from a cultural synthesis of Malagasy traditions and western/christian ideology, which sought to negatively frame the ancestral veneration practiced by pre-christian Malagasy due to its competition with Christian conversion campaigns.

In our next episode, we will examine two semi-historical figures from the earliest stage of Merina history. Like many aristocratic Merina, they were the product of a mixed marriage between Vazimba and Hova. One of these brothers, Andriamanelo, will go down in history as the first king of the Merina. 

S4E12: The Crisis of the 18th Century part 2: The Merina Civil War

During this period of civil war, the Sakalava Kingdoms of Menabe and Boeny exploited Merina polities for tribute payments of cattle and slaves in exchange for military assistance.

With the collapse of centralized political authority, the 18th century saw Imerina fall into 70 years of bloody civil war.

The 18th century saw an acceleration of an existent, but relatively small slave trade in Madagascar into a large, organized affair. In addition to their own raids on the Merina, Sakalava raiders offered their services as mercenaries to Merina rump states in exchange for assistance in their civil war. Sakalava soldiers were generally larger and healthier due to a more nutritious diet, as well as more experienced in combat and better equipped, but they failed to make a decisive difference in the tangled mess of Merina civil wars. Given how advantageous the situation was for them either way, the raiders likely didn't mind this shortcoming.

The Spanish "Real de a Ocho" or "Piece of Eight", the coins which Rakotomavo sought to mint

The king of Ambohimanga, Rakotomavo, tried to salvage his kingdom's economy with an unsuccessful attempt to counterfeit Spanish pieces of eight to facilitate a competitive advantage in trade with foreigners. The plan failed.

Enslaved man on a sugar plantation in Mauritius

The rising slave trade on Madagascar during the Merina civil war was fueled largely by two growing markets for Malagasy enslaved workers. In the east, French investors planned to transform the once derelict Dutch colony of Mauritius into an enormous sugar plantation. The colony proved enormously profitable for investors, and enormously costly on laborers. The deadly conditions forced the French to constantly purchase new labor to replace losses.

Auction of enslaved people in Zanzibar

In modern Tanzania, the Sultanate of Oman was expanding the spice plantations surrounding Zanzibar. While these plantations had not reached their full potential yet, the 18th century marked the beginning of a period of rapid growth. Throughout the 18th century, the majority of enslaved people exported from Madagascar ended up in this region of East Africa.