S2E13: The Aksumite-Persian War

Hello everyone. I hope you enjoy this week's episode on the Aksumite-Persian war. While this war is often overlooked by contemporary historians, it played a consequential role in world history. The Aksumite-Persian war would have a massive impact not only on Ethiopia, Persian, and Yemeni history, but would even have an impact on the rise of a certain Arabian religion whose rise would mark the end of antiquity and the beginning of the medieval age in the Near East. 

Our war begins due to dynastic fallout in the then-independent kingdom of Aksumite Arabia. In 570, Abraha, the Aksumite general who rebelled against Kaleb and created his own independent kingdom, died. Abraha struggled to designate a clear heir before his death. While he had many sons, the two who would play the most consequential role in the upcoming struggle were named Masruq and Madi Karib (sometimes also referred to by the name Yaksum).

Note: The identity of Madi Karib is sometimes contested. The mainstream scholarly opinion is that Madi Karib and Yaksum are two names for the same person, with Karib being the name used by Arabs and Yaksum being the one used by Ethiopians. However, it is worth noting that some scholars believe otherwise, and that Yaksum and Madi Karib are two distinct people. This podcast endorsed the mainstream view as espoused by Glen Bowersock in his book The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam. It's also worth noting that many accounts of the period seemingly conflate the actions of Madi Karib and the legendary king Sayf. However, because of his poor attestation in reliable histories outside of the History of Tabari, we opted to side with Bowersock's perspective that Sayf died before the invasion commenced, and that the actions attributed to Sayf during and after the invasion were instead performed by Madi Karib.

Where things went sour between two most prominent sons of Abraha is up for debate. Their struggle may have originated out of a cynical desire for the throne, or it may have been based on a staunch disagreement regarding how they would engage in diplomacy with Aksumite Africa. Masruq favored a policy of reconciliation, and sought to return Aksumite Arabia to a tributary status. Again, his motivations for why are unclear. Reconstructing the history of Masruq and Karib's feud is a bit like asking questions about the chicken and the egg. Did Masruq submit to Aksum for help against Karib's rebellion? Or did Karib rebel because Masruq submitted to Aksum? In the podcast, I chose to make something of a compromise between these views, arguing that Masruq was already planning to submit to Aksum, but that Karib's rebellion made the need to do so more urgent. However, Karib's early attempt to seize the throne failed, and he was sent into exile. 

Given that last episode focused entirely on Aksum's disastrous decline in the era preceding this war, it should not be a surprise that the Aksumite military which would fend off the Persian invasion was a far-cry from the massive armies of Kaleb and Abraha. The combined forces of Masruq's militia and the Aksumite reinforcements sent to aid him tallied approximately 10,000, a far cry from the ~120,000 raised by Kaleb in his invasion of Himyar.

Karib, on the other hand, found himself with a slight advantage. While in exile, Karib found himself in the palace of the Persian shah Khosrow II. The Persians, longtime rivals of the Aksumites, were all too happy to take the opportunity to support this rival claimant to the throne of Aksumite Arabia in an effort to undermine their enemy. There he also met Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan, a Himyarite Arab noble. Like Karib, Yazan also sought to drive Masruq out of southern Arabia. What role Yazan played in this conflict isn't very clear. Some biographies I read claimed that he played a pivotal invasion in the campaign, while others claim he actually died before the invasion succeeded. Personally, this is the theory I lean toward. The evidence of Yazan's presence in Yemen during the invasion is unreliable, and it seems to me that many biographies of Yazan seemingly blend him and Karib into the same person. Additionally, Yazan's biographies often include mythical details, such as Djinn, magic, and spirits, as well as the occasional obvious political commentary from the 15th century Egyptian authors of the biography. These details make it difficult to take the biography of Yazan seriously as a historical source compared to contemporary Persian and Aksumite writings. 

The fashion and styles of this illustration of Sayf ibn Dhi-Yazan are more reminiscent of late-medieval Egypt than late-antiquity Yemen. Look at that moustache!

While Khosrow was willing to support Karib, he clearly viewed this invasion as a huge risk. Rather than committing a true army, Khosrow instead sent an army of prisoners to accompany Karib in his war. These prisoners were from the Daylamite ethnic group, which had rebelled against Khosrow in support of a rival. The leader of these Daylamites was named Boe (pictured below with the bow in hand), who led this force of 1,000 Daylamites into Yemen. In the end, only about 800 made it to their destination (the rest were blown off course), but their forces swelled to 16,000 men with the rallying of both Karib and Yazan's supporters to the invaders' side.

This combined force met Masruq's army in Hadramawt, the eastern fringes of Aksumite Arabia. Initial clashes were mostly even, with Masruq gaining a minor advantage on his foes despite his numerical inferiority. However, the tide of the battle turned when the son of the Persian commander Boe was killed in battle. Enraged by the death of his son, Boe began targeting Masruq himself with arrowfire. One of these arrows eventually struck and killed Masruq, with the scene being depicted below in the Tārīkhnāma, a Persian manuscript.  

Similarly to the Yazan illustration, the fashion and styles depicting the death of Masruq more closely resemble the styles that the Tārīkhnāma's 10th century Persian authors would be familiar with.

Demoralized by the death of their leader, the Aksumite forces scattered. With Persian support, Karib retook the throne of an independent Yemeni kingdom, once again dominated by the region's Aksumite elites. However, the kingdom remained unstable after Karib ascended to the throne. Just three years after he retook his position, Karib's kingdom was once again invaded by an Aksumite force, allegedly led by one of Abraha's other, less prominent sons. With Karib dead, a larger Persian army led by Boe once again invaded the territory and defeated the Aksumite defenders, this time outright annexing the region into a Persian satrapy with Boe, now known by his new title of Wahriz, serving as its governor.

Earlier in the season, I realized an episode entitled the Aksumite Empire's Greatest Defeat, which focused on the failed campaign of Negus Datwinas in Southern Arabia. While I still believe that Datwinas' campaign should hold the title for Aksum's greatest defeat, the loss of Yemen to Persian invasion certainly comes close. Just as the throne of Aksum had regained its foothold in Yemen, it was lost almost immediately. Had Aksum maintained its hold on Yemen, as well as the incense monopoly and control over the Red Sea it enabled, who knows how history would have turned out. Additionally, the expulsion of Aksumite influence in Yemen would force the Aksumites to take desperate measures to maintain influence in Arabia. This leads us into next week's episode, which focuses on the rise of Islam from an Aksumite perspective, and how the actions of the Aksumite king Armah (also known as Najashi) changed the history of the world forever.

Anyways, here's a video of a guy shooting the Persian "Panjegan" bow, or at least a modern guess at what they may have looked like.

S2 E12: The Year of the Elephant and the First Plague

Hello everyone. I hope you enjoy the latest episode of the show, in which Aksum (and the whole world, really) are devastated by the First Plague Pandemic, and Abraha's kingdom of Aksumite Arabia begins to unravel.

Map of the First Plague Pandemic

If you'd like to learn more about the evidence we have for the First Plague pandemic originating in Subsaharan Africa, you can listen to the latest premium episode on our Patreon. For just $1.99, you get to access all of our premium episodes.

Depiction of an Aksumite in Zafar, Yemen. Often claimed to be a representation of Abraha, though this is debatable.

With the plague dying down in Southern Arabia, Abraha set to work repairing his kingdom's economy. The old staple industry of Yemen, the export of incenses, would struggle with the drought facing the country. While the Marib dam was eventually repaired, the newly reinvigorated farmland had to be used to eliminate the famine ravaging the countryside. Instead, Abraha placed his economic hopes in pilgrimage. He ordered the construction of an incredibly elaborate church in Sana'a, hoping that it would become an attractive destination for pilgrims across Arabia. 

The remaining foundation of the Al-Qullays Church

However, these pilgrims came only in small numbers. Most Arabian Christians stuck with the more familiar and popular pilgrimage destination: the Kaaba. The Kaaba was a cube shaped building outside of Mecca, an ancient temple used as a multi-purpose worship site by the various religions of Arabia. The various tribes of the peninsula would, once each year, set aside their feuds and disputes to peacefully worship and trade at the Kaaba. According to Islamic and Arab-Christian tradition, the Kaaba was first constructed by Ishmael, the oldest son of Abraham. Most contemporary historians assert that the Kaaba was not as old as initially claimed, and was instead built in the early centuries AD as a shrine to Hubal, one of the numerous gods of North-Arabian polytheism. Regardless, the Kaaba was already a centuries-old and pilgrimage to the site was already a well established tradition when Abraha tried to build his competing church. Realizing that he couldn't attract pilgrims while the Kaaba existed, Abraha launched an attack on Mecca in an attempt to destroy the Kaaba. While his army won the initial skirmishes on his way to the city, he was unsuccessful in his bid to enter the city. According to the Islamic tradition, Abraha was slowed by his elephant mount, Mahmud, refusing to advance. Then, he was attacked and eventually killed by a flock of birds. The modern re-interpretation of the story is that Abraha's army was either beset by plague or ran out of supplies and was forced to turn back. Soon after he returned, he passed away.

Abraha's death immediately destabilized Aksumite Arabia. In place of an established, long-time ruler, Aksumite Arabia was now ruled by one of Abraha's inexperienced sons, Masruq. To make matters worse, Masruq immediately had to contend with multiple rivals who wanted his position of power for themselves. Not only did many of the powerful Arab chieftains and nobles want the Aksumite prince out of Arabia forever, but he also found opposition from within the Aksumite elites. This latter group was emboldened further when Masruq, desperate for allies, submitted to Ella Amidas and resumed tribute payments. One of Masruq's brothers, Madi Karib, was immensely angered by this decision. He turned on his brother, and began plotting a revolt, but was exiled before it could get underway. However, Karib was not willing to give up so soon. He, as well as an Arab noble called Sumyafa Ashwa, fled to Persia, where they beseeched the Persian Shah for assistance in toppling Masruq. Next episode will focus on the inevitable war with Persia. If you'd like to make sure you catch it, follow our show on whatever platform you use to listen.

S2E11: The Aksumite Civil War

In the year 525, Aksum was on top of the world. The empire had long been among the most powerful states on the planet, considered an equal of Rome and Persia as far back as the rule of Ezana. However, with the conclusion of Kaleb's conquest of Himyar, the state vaulted to the top. For a brief year, Aksum was, probably, the single wealthiest and most powerful state on Earth.

However, after this great peak in power, Aksum immediately saw a period of instability. Fueled by a differing policy on how to treat the conquered people of Himyar, the two Aksumite generals Ariat and Abraha butted heads. Yes, their names are incredibly similar, so it can be somewhat confusing to listen to. Ariat, Kaleb's half-brother, viewed the conflict as a holy war. To Ariat, the main goal of the conflict had always been to convert the Himyarites. He marched his army around the Yemeni countryside, coercing conversion to Christianity out of any Jewish or Pagan villages he encountered. Abraha, on the other hand, had viewed the conflict as just another war. He looted villages indiscriminately of religion, and sought direct dominance of the region rather than working through local intermediaries. You can imagine how these two must have viewed each other: Ariat viewing Abraha has an atheistic opportunist and vice versa as a reckless zealot, though neither of these caricatures were accurate. And, again, because the names are so similar:

Abraha = Former slave turned general, supported indiscriminate looting, and giving the loot directly to soldiers

Ariat = Kaleb's brother, supported looting only of non-Christians, and sending the loot to Aksum as tribute

This confrontation eventually escalated into a civil war after Abraha imprisoned an ambassador sent by Kaleb. Taking this as an act of treason, Ariat convinced Kaleb to send him reinforcements to confront Abraha. Abraha's force was significantly outnumbered. Ariat's army possessed more than 100,000 men by some estimates, making it the largest army under the command of a single man in Aksumite history. Abraha, on the other hand, likely commanded 50,000 men or less. Despite this disparity in numbers, early skirmishes proved inconclusive. Understanding that he couldn't win, Abraha challenged Ariat to a duel, an opportunity to personally kill his hated rival which the latter couldn't refuse. However, Abraha emerged victorious in the duel, and Ariat's army defected en masse. Later attempts by Kaleb to reconquer Yemen ended in failure.

Overcome by the weight of this defeat, Kaleb decided to abdicate the throne. Remember, Kaleb's dream job since childhood was to live a peaceful, studious life in a monastery. So, that's what he did. He donated the crown jewels of Aksum to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, where they have been lost ever since the church was destroyed by a fire in 614.

S2E10: Saint Kaleb the Conqueror

 

Hi everyone, I hope you enjoyed this week's episode on the life and times of the Aksumite king Kaleb. He is most famous for his invasion of the kingdom of Himyar, located in modern Yemen. His rule represented the peak of Aksumite power, avenging Aksum's previous defeats in Southern Arabia and expanding Aksumite hegemony to its greatest extent. By the end of his reign, the Aksumite Empire was unquestionably the most powerful kingdom not only in the Red Sea region but arguably in the entire Indian Ocean.

The portrait of Negus Kaleb that serves as the cover for season 2 of the podcast

Kaleb is something of a relatable character. As a young man, he never wanted to be king. Aksum at the time was still in the later stages of the religious and intellectual renaissance that started with the arrival of the nine saints. Kaleb, an inquisitive and academic young man, was more interested in reading religious and theological texts than ruling a nation. While religious institutions today are largely perceived as anti-intellectual and superstitious, nothing could have been further from the truth in Kaleb's era. At the time, monasteries were the most prestigious academic institutions of the day. Monks within these monasteries engaged in rigorous theological debates and worked hard to preserve the extensive monastic libraries. However, Kaleb's father, King Ousas, died before he could produce a more willing heir, so the title of King of Kings was thrust upon the reluctant young man.

However, despite his reluctance to take the title, Kaleb proved initially to be quite an effective ruler. His domestic reign was prosperous, but he really made a name for himself when a crisis across the Red Sea demanded a response. The King of Himyar, Dhu Nuwas, had begun to persecute the Christian population of the long-time Aksumite ally, the city of Najran. The Aksumite garrison which had been assigned to protect the city was massacred with special malice, provoking an Aksumite response. Kaleb expended the vast resources of Aksum to assemble the largest army in Aksumite history, more than 100,000 men by some estimates. Accompanying this army was a brigade of trained war elephants and a battalion of Somali mercenaries.

The campaign proved to be a decisive victory. The Himyarite army was devastated at the battle of Zafar, and the Himyarite king died soon after. Depending on which source you believe, the Himyarite King was either executed by Aksumite forces or killed himself by riding his horse into the ocean. However, soon after this successful invasion, rifts began to form within the Aksumite military. One faction, led by Kaleb's relative, Ariat, supported punishing the Himyarites for the persecution at Najran. The other faction, led by a slave-turned-advisor-turned-general Abraha, supported further integration of Himyar into the Aksumite state, annexing the region and turning its inhabitants into subjects of the king instead of persecuting them. In the next episode, we'll witness this rift evolve into outright civil war, with Ariat and Kaleb on one side against Abraha and his supporters on the other.

Author's note: in the podcast I make the claim that "an estimate of 60,000 was more accurate for the number of soldiers in the invasion force. This was a mistake. I meant to say that 60,000 was a more accurate estimate for each of the invading armies. I had seen estimates as high as 200,000 for the entire invasion force, but had seen reputable scholars dispute this number as being closer to 120,000, with 60,000 being present in both Ariat and Abraha's invasion forces. Some sources, however, note that Abraha alone may have commanded about 100,000 men, while Ariat only commanded 60,000. The matter is confusing and nobody knows for sure.

S2E9: The Zealot King and the Nine Saints

  
 

Hello everyone, I hope you enjoy this week's episode of the history of Africa. This week, we cover two somewhat obscure periods of Aksumite history, the rule of the zealot king Mehadyis and the arrival of the "Nine Saints" into the Aksumite empire.

Mehadyis' silver coin. Notice the Ge'ez writing and more prominent Christian imagery

This era of Aksumite history is fairly mysterious, as historical records about Aksum from this time are quite rough. As an example of that, Mehadyis is the last Aksumite ruler whose name's pronunciation is uncertain (he is the last ruler to spell his name with the old, vowel-less Ge'ez alphabet as MHDYS). Because of the scant records of this period, I had to make some admitted stretches in connecting the dots of what occurred in this period. For example, we know that Mehadyis included a lot of Christian imagery in his coins, we know that he did not appoint an Abuna during his rule (at least not one that had any real power), and that all Pagan syncretic practices evaporated rapidly during his rule. While there are no historical records that explicitly state that he went on a campaign to root out Pagan practices during his reign, the culmination of these three events seems to point to something along these lines occurring during his reign. However, I'm adding this disclaimer to future-proof this episode. In the future, evidence might come to light that disproves this admittedly quite flimsy understanding of this period in Aksumite history. Additionally, for this same reason, the dating in this episode is questionable, and could definitely be disproven by new evidence coming to light. If any archaeological or textual discoveries emerge that challenge the assumptions in this episode, I will make sure to update the episode with our most recent understanding of the period.

Medieval Ethiopian mural depicting the Nine Saints

Fortunately, the archaeological records of the ensuing period are significantly better, in part due to the gradual arrival of the nine saints. Again, the exact date of their arrival is not certain (and it's unlikely that they all arrived in close succession), so the dating of this episode is subject to change. However, regardless of what year they arrived, their impact on Tawhahedo Christianity is undeniable. 

A page from the Garima Gospels, the oldest illuminated manuscript in the world

The Nine Saints introduced many important aspects of church activity that continue in Ethiopia to this day, including the countries first permanent monasteries, some of its most important churches, and the introduction of a strong church scholastic tradition.

The entrace to Debre Damo

The extremely isolated Debre Damo monastery requires climbing equipment to reach

Ethiopia's church has been the single most important institution in terms of preserving important historical documents and records. If not for the reforms introduced by the Nine Saints and continued by their disciples, our understanding of East African history would be incredibly limited. Additionally, much of the modern culture of the Ethiopian highlands stems from the artistic and institutional traditions of the Tawhahedo Church. For example, the bedrock of Ethiopian musical tradition stems largely from the works of Saint Yared, a disciple of one of the Nine Saints who was later himself sainted for his immense contributions to Tawhahedo liturgical music.

Mural depicting Saint Yared and his disciples performing in front of the Aksumite Negusa

Thank you for listening to the show. As always, myself and my editor put ~20 hours of work into each episode's research, writing, recording, editing, uploading, and promoting. If you'd like to help support us for the free education and entertainment we provide, then you can do so by supporting the show on Patreon, providing a review on your listening app of choice, or by sharing the podcast with anyone you think might be interested.

S2E8: Ezana's Conquest of Nubia

King Ezana's Funerary Stela

In this week's episode, King Ezana will deal with the fallout of the decisions made in the first half of his reign and somehow emerge from these challenges in an even stronger position than before.

Note: The Blemmyes were another nomadic people who invaded Nubia during the end of Meroe. Where exactly their realm ended and Nobatia's began is not clear.

The first of these challenges was overcoming the religious tensions that emerged with Aksum's conversion to Christianity. While the peasantry and nobility of Aksum were surprisingly receptive to the change, Aksum's Jewish population was unwilling to convert. In the face of increasingly aggressive missionary efforts, the Jews of Aksum fled to the Semien mountains, where they proclaimed a man named Phineas to be their king. Despite now having a kingdom of their own, however, the Aksumite Jews continued to pay taxes to Ezana. In the end, this exodus to the Semien mountains ended up working out well for everyone. The Jews could avoid persecution and conversion, while the Aksumites could continue to profit from their taxation. 

To the North, Ezana had to decide what position Aksum would support in the theological controversies that were ailing Roman Christianity. Coincidentally for our podcast, this controversy was, itself, incited by the teachings of an African. Arius was a Berber theologian from the region of modern Libya, then a part of the Roman Empire. He believed that, before the creation of the world, there was a time when God the Father existed without God the Son. This notion, while it seems esoteric and unimportant to us today, was an incredibly controversial belief in the 4th century. Arius' school of thought always remained a minority view in the Roman Empire, but caught on strongly among certain portions of the Roman populous, especially among the Germanic tribes and the Roman legions.

Arius "The Heretic"

During the reign of the Roman emperor Constantius, Arian Christianity became the dominant sect within the imperial court. Ezana's tutor and bishop Frumentius, however, was a Nicene Christian. As part of a wider purge of Nicenes from Rome's government and religious institutions, Constantius tried to pressure Ezana to remove Frumentius as the Abuna, or patriarch, of Aksum. This demand was refused, indicating that, even in this early state, East African Christianity enjoyed independence from Roman religious authorities. This is an important distinction, as the fact that Frumentius was appointed from Alexandria and practiced Nicene Christanity might make you think that Aksumite Christianity was just an extension of the Roman faith. However, with Ezana's refusal to dismiss Frumentius, it becomes clear that Roman religious authorities held no true power over the Aksumite church.

Some of Meroe's famous pyramids

At the tail-end of his reign, Ezana encountered a crisis with his Northwestern neighbor, the Nubian kingdom of Meroe. Meroe was a kingdom in decline since even before Ezana took the throne. A series of wars between the kingdom and Rome throughout the first centuries BC and AD severely hurt the kingdoms economic prospects, and forced the Meroites to give away significant portions of valuable farmland to repatious mercenaries. Throughout the early centuries AD, things got worse for Meroe as Aksum began to outcompete the Meroites in the trade of African goods like ebony wood, ivory, exotic animals, and, of course, incense. The treasury of Meroe was, at this point, relying entirely on the import tariffs that they levied on Aksumite and Roman merchants, much to the chagrin of these merchants. However, with the reduction of piracy and the construction of Gadarat's road on the Red Sea coast, these merchants could bypass Nubia altogether, drying up Meroe's last source of revenue. Early in Ezana's rule, he had already taken advantage of Meroe's weakness once when he used their land as a bargaining chip in the resettlement of the coastal Beja population. However, when a Nubian militia made an encroachment on Aksumite elephant hunting grounds, it gave Ezana an excuse to invade Meroe. With Meroe destroyed, a new Askumite client arose in the city of Soba. Soba became the capital of Alodia. This kingdom would itself last for almost a millennium, finally collapsing in the 14th century AD. 

Ruins of an Alodian fort outside Soba, Sudan

Ezana, despite his Christian faith, was buried in a traditional Aksumite pagan ceremony. However, he would ultimately be the last Aksumite king to be buried in this way. Next episode, we will focus on the life of Mehadyis, the Zealot king of Aksum who made it his mission to destroy the remnants of Aksumite paganism. 

S2E7: The Great King Ezana

 

A coin minted by Ezana early in his reign

In this week's episode, we explore the reign of Ezana, the greatest king in Aksumite history. We begin the episode at the start of Ezana's life. He was tutored by Frumentius, a Syrian Christian who was sold as a slave to the Aksumite court, and was later elevated to the position of advisor after he demonstrated great confidence and charisma. 

Frumentius, Ezana's childhood tutor and close friend (depicted here as an old man)

Frumentius's tutoring had a strong impact on the young boy. In addition to strengthening Ezana's linguistic and literacy skills, he also instilled in the boy a philosophy that was derived from the Nicaean church. By the time Ezana came of age, Frumentius would leave the country and return to Rome to continue his ecclesiastic education.

As was the norm in the Aksumite government, many of the top positions within the military were reserved for members of the royal family. In the case of Ezana, military command was reserved for his brother, Saizana. In the early years of his reign, Ezana and his brother underwent a series of military incursions against the nomadic Beja people to their North. The Beja were a Cushitic people who lived in small, nomadic clans. Like nomadic people throughout the world, the Beja proved to be both a welcome partner and a troublesome adversary for the settled people around them. They often raided Aksumite and Roman caravans that crossed through their land, resulting in lost profits for the merchants of both states. In order to stop this banditry, Ezana sent his brother in command of an army to relocate a portion of the Beja people into Eastern Nubia to make the remaining tribes easier to control.

A modern Beja bedouin.

This plan was a success, and several Beja tribes were successfully relocated into Nubian lands. This decision took advantage of the weakness of the Nubian kingdom of Meroe, an ancient empire approaching the end of its life. The details of this collapse will be elaborated on next episode when Ezana continues to take advantage of Meroe's decline.

This week's Patreon exclusive episode focuses on the modern history of Ethiopia's Jewish population. We will certainly be hearing more about this fascinating people in future episodes, and if you'd like to learn about the modern history of the Ethiopian Jewish population and their mass-exodus out of the country, you can listen by becoming a patron of the show at our patreon. Thank you for listening, and I hope you continue to enjoy the show.