S4E9: Betsimitatra and the Wonders of Agricultural Engineering

 

While population estimates vary wildly, anthropologists and historians agree that highland Madagascar underwent a staggering explosion of population in the 17th and 18th centuries. According to the oldest available censuses, the density of Imerina was 8-16 times higher than other regions of the island. The explanation for this enormous growth can be partially explained with the emergence of extremely efficient wet rice cultivation techniques.

Photograph of the Betsimitatra as viewed from the air. Notice the canals. Photo by Symonette Fanjanarivo

In its natural state, highland Madagascar is entirely unable to support wet rice cultivation. While this technique of rice growth is more efficient, it is limited in its viability due to its high water costs. In Imerina, rainfall is abundant for a brief moment in the wet season, while almost entirely absent for the rest of the year. This means that, naturally, wet rice cultivation was too water intensive to last throughout these long dry spells. 

An example of a dry (aka upland) rice field from Nepal 

Instead, early Merina farmers relied on dry rice cultivation techniques. This technique required less water, but relied on frequent fertilization with slash-and-burn agriculture, struggled to deal with weeds, and were vulnerable to locust swarms. 

Malagasy locusts, one of the island's deadliest pests. Photo by Peter Prokosch

The solution to these problems was wet rice cultivation, which choked out weeds and protected the rice from pests with an aquatic shield. Starting around the end of Andrianjaka's rule, Merina kings began to construct large scale infrastructure projects to make wet rice agriculture possible.

An example of terraced rice paddies and an irrigation canal in Imerina.

Throughout the reigns of Andriantsitakaransria and his successor Andriantsimitoviaminandriandehibe, conscript labor from local hova demes were used to construct large canals, reservoirs, and flood control systems throughout the highlands surrounding Antananarivo. These new measures allowed Merina farmers access to a source of plentiful freshwater which did not rely exclusively on rainfall. The greatest of these achievements were the fields of Betsimitatra. This region, which had once been composed of stagnant wetlands, was transformed with the construction of a series of canals which extended the Ikopa river to run through its valleys. With a new source of agriculturally viable water, the swamps were transformed into Madagascar's most productive rice farms. While the country would remain a secondary power on the island for the coming centuries, the creation of this efficient network of food production was its first step towards becoming Madagascar's pre-eminent state.

S4E8: Andrianjaka - The Indivisible Sun

 

Besakana with its original thatched roof 

Today's episode follows the life of Andrianjaka, the Mpanjaka Imerina most famous for his conquest of Analamanga and the subsequent establishment of the Rova of Antananarivo. Additionally, we will discuss the reforms he made to the Merina religious system by canonizing the sampy, as well as his consequential decision to expel the remaining Vazimba population from his kingdom.

Interior of Beskana

S4E7: Ralambo's Wars

One of the few surviving illustrations of Kelimalaza, drawn by one of its guardians in 1828. (Berg, 1998.) While the Tantara provides little detail about Kelimalaza beyond that it was made of metal and wrapped in banana leaf, this illustration depicts it as a trio of statuettes.

In the early 17th century, a raiding party of Sakalava soldiers entered Imerina. King Ralambo, faced with an existential threat, was forced to rely only on a combination of his own wit and divine assistance from the idol Kelimalaza. According to the Tantara, Kelimalaza assisted Ralambo in all of his shocking victories over his larger and better-equipped enemy armies. 

The Tantara also describes Ralambo's increasingly strained relationship with one of his sons during this time. While his younger son, Andrianjaka, proved intelligent, dynamic, and brave on the battlefield, the king's relationship with his elder son was far less positive. Andriantompokoindrindra, the elder son, was better known for his gaming addiction than anything else.

A board of fanorona 

The elder prince was consumed by an intense interest in fanorona, a Malagasy strategic board game. The prince's addiction was so intense that, on multiple occasions, Andriantompokoindrindra refused to assist his father during life-or-death scenarios, instead insisting on finishing his ongoing games of Fanorona. At one point, the prince even chastised the messengers who informed him of his father's precarious situation during an enemy siege by passive-aggressively announcing each move he made in his game in an effort to get the messengers to leave him alone. Ralambo was unhappy with his elder son's behavior and realized that the kingdom was better off in Andrianjaka's hands. 

S4E6: Sakalava, Madagascar's First Empire

 

Map of Sakalava (green) and Imerina (pink) in the early 17th Century

Today's episode focuses on the rise of Sakalava, the first true empire in Malagasy history. This will be far from its last appearance, as the Sakalava kingdom (and, in the future, multiple kingdoms) will serve as the arch-rival of Imerina throughout much of its early history.

A Sakalava woman possessed by an ancestor or spirit during a Tromba ceremony. Sourced from: The Possessed and the Dispossessed by Lesley A. Sharp

Sakalava culture is noted for it's unclear origins. Sakalava oral histories claim an origin from southwestern Madagascar of the Maroseraña royal family. Though some anthropologists from around the world speculated on potential origins from outside of Madagascar (such as Zimbabwe, India, or the Swahili Coast), more mainstream scholarly work generally confirms the oral history, though with the caveat that the Maroseraña likely intermarried and integrated multiple families from other parts of the island as well as from the southwest.

Sakalava people first emerged under the kingship of a monarch named Andriamisara, who Sakalava histories typically credit as the first true Sakalava king. He united the numerous semi-nomadic people of Western Madagascar under his yoke, marking the genesis of the Sakalava identity.

Along with lifestyle, Sakalava also practice unique traditions. Women who were subjects of the Sakalava king were required to shave their hair in times of mourning, and their diet contained more animal products and less rice than their highland neighbors. They also practiced unique religious ceremonies, such as Tromba. This ceremony involves the possession of a person by a spirit or ancestor. The experience was a positive one, with the ancestor or spirit using the possession to impart wisdom, power, or good fortune on the possessed. 

A trio of Sakalava soldiers. Photo captured in 1895.

The Sakalava succeeded in early expansion in part due to a technological advantage over their peers. Even as early as the 17th century, Sakalava soldiers made heavy use of gunpowder firearms. Perhaps more importantly, the system of Sakalava rule allowed for the kingdom to quickly expand. According to both Sakalava oral histories and the writings of European merchants, Sakalava rule was quite loose, allowing a fair amount of autonomy to local kings. People who acquiesced to Sakalava rule were rewarded, such as the Vazimba rulers who surrendered. In return, these Vazimba were given special privileges over the rivers and streams of Sakalava country, allowing for exclusive fishing and cultivation rights.

The Swahili stone mansions in western Madagascar were close simulacra of Swahili stone houses found on the mainland in settlements like Songo Mnara (pictured) or Kilwa Kisiwani

Trade also played a key role. Swahili merchants were a major presence in West Madagascar, often living in luxurious stone mansions that dwarfed the wooden homes of even Malagasy lords. They were able to afford such homes due to their lucrative position as middlemen to much of the Malagasy economy, shipping Malagasy rice, leather, slaves, and beef across the Indian Ocean. The Malagasy, in exchange, received metals, finished goods, glass, precious shells, pearls, incense, timber, and numerous other luxury goods. European traders also made their presence known during this time, also engaging in trade of firearms, rum, glass, and other goods in exchange for timber, rice, and enslaved workers.

Swahili settlement ruins near modern Mahajanga. See earlier photo for comparison.

S4E5: Ralambo - The Miracle Child

While Malagasy historiography has labelled his father as the "First King of Imerina", Ralambo may be the single most important king in Merina history. Many crucial elements of Merina life, such as the veneration of Sampy, the consumption of beef, and even the name "Imerina" itself trace their roots back to this oustanding monarch. 

An example of an Ody, an amulet used to store hasina from a sampy.

S4E4: Andriamanelo - King of Alasora

Fortified gate at Ambohimanga, likely similar to those which defended the settlement from Andriamanelo and his army

While there are earlier named monarchs in the history of Imerina, the rule of Andriamanelo, which took place in some era of the mid-to-late 16th century, is generally considered the gateway between mythology and history in the kingdom's history. While segments of his reign are clearly mythological, he is the first ruler of the Malagasy highlands whose biography generally reflects historical reality.

Note: In the episode, I translate "tsodrano" to "circumcision." This is not accurate. "Tsodrano" is Malagasy for "blessing." The Merina circumcision ritual is referred to as tsodrano because of the blessing applied to the water used to cleanse the wound.

19th century photograph of the Malagasy circumcision ritual, including blessed water to cleanse the wound

Andriamanelo is credited with numerous achievements. He expanded the nascent kingdom of Imerimanjaka by marrying the princess of Ambohitrabyby, a nearby city-state. The king is credited with numerous technological and cultural innovations, such as the introduction ironworking technology, the invention or introduction (traditions vary) of Sikidy divination, and the creation of several unique Malagasy wedding traditions.

Sikidy is a form of divination which relies on the use of complex boolean algebra equations. Check out our premium episode about it on our Patreon page.

Andriamanelo's rule is a difficult period to analyze. While the wide variety of fairly reliable oral histories of his reign generally mark it as "true history" rather than mere legend, the exact achievements and developments of his rule are questionable. Even questions as simple as when Andriamanelo ruled are unknown, while some common elements of his story, like the introduction of ironworking, are outright contradicted by archaeological evidence. Regardless, he is a watershed figure in Merina history.  

Andriamanelo's tomb in Alasora

S4E3: The Vazimba, Hova, and Merina

The tomb of Rangita, located in Imerimanjaka

Indigeneity is a complex modern concept, one which is often difficult or even impossible to apply to societies from the pre-modern era. This is especially true on an island like Madagascar, with its melting-pot population. Merina legend records the existence of a people who lived on the Highlands of Madagascar before the arrival of migrants from the southeast coast. These first people of inland Madagascar are called the Vazimba. 

Analyzing the mythology surrounding Vazimba is a difficult task, since the description of who and what Vazimba are changes dramatically depending on the context. In the Tantara Ny Andriana, Vazimba are depicted as barely human-like creatures. They possessed glowing red eyes, enormous hanging ears, gigantic mouths full of sharp teeth, as well as dark skin and very short stature. The Vazimba also lived animalistically in this version of the myth. They have yet to discover riziculture and proper animal husbandry, preferring to drink milk directly from feral cattle rather than domesticating the animals, and used clay tools due to lack of metal-working technology. 

While some myths frame the Vazimba as subhuman creatures, others are more humanizing in their portrayal. These stories typically involve Vazimba women, particularly those who are the ancestors to later Merina families. These women are depicted as intelligent, beautiful, and privy to valuable secret knowledge. Curiously, Vazimba are also sometimes regarded as objects of veneration - ancestors who warrant praise and worship, especially when trying to initiate a business venture or conceive. What's going on with these very contradictory narratives?

Mahafaly statuette depicting a Vazimba, carvdd circa 1960

While many Vazimba legends depict them as semi-human monsters, historians believe that Vazimba represented a real population of humans that existed in the Malagasy highlands prior to the inland migration of coastal Hova classes in the 13th and 14th centuries. The origin of these first Malagasy, however, is highly disputed. Originally, European scholars that the Vazimba were part of the "African pygmy race" due to descriptions of their small stature. This assumption also aligned well with a dominant European ideology of racial darwinism, in which superior races conquered and subsumed inferior races like the pygmies.

Along with racial darwinism, the purported pygmy origins of the Vazimba has fallen out of favor in recent years. While there is evidence for some kind of pre-Austronesian population existing in Madagascar, the lack of place names deriving from pre-Bantu East African language families contradicts this hypothesis. Additionally, beyond their supposed shortness, there's really no similarity in the myth to any extant people groups.

Another Mahafaly statuette of a Vazimba, 1961

Among historical scholars, the predominant view of Vazimba mythology origins is that they represent an Austronesian population, albeit one from an earlier settlement wave. Berg wrote convincingly in his scholarly article about how the mythology of Vazimba originates from a cultural synthesis of Malagasy traditions and western/christian ideology, which sought to negatively frame the ancestral veneration practiced by pre-christian Malagasy due to its competition with Christian conversion campaigns.

In our next episode, we will examine two semi-historical figures from the earliest stage of Merina history. Like many aristocratic Merina, they were the product of a mixed marriage between Vazimba and Hova. One of these brothers, Andriamanelo, will go down in history as the first king of the Merina.